ISSN: 2047-2986

Facebook-f Twitter Youtube Linkedin Envelope
ISOGH

Impact factor (WEB OF SCIENCE - Clarivate)

2 year: 7.664 | 5 year: 7.127

Articles

Self-care behaviours among people with type 2 diabetes mellitus in South Asia: A systematic review and meta-analysis

Grish Paudel1, Corneel Vandelanotte2, Padam K Dahal1, Tuhin Biswas3, Uday N Yadav4,5, Tomohiko Sugishita6, Lal Rawal1,2,7

1 School of Health, Medical and Applied Sciences, Central Queensland University, Sydney, Australia
2 Appleton Institute, Physical Activity Research Group, Central Queensland University, Rockhampton, Australia
3 The Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Children and Families over the Life Course, The University of Queensland, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
4 National Centre for Epidemiology and Population Health, The Australian National University, Canberra, Australia
5 Centre for Primary Health Care and Equity, University of New South Wales, Sydney, Australia
6 Section of Global Health, Division of Public Health, Department of Public Health, Tokyo Women’s Medical University, Tokyo, Japan
7 Translational Health Research Institute (THRI), Western Sydney University, Sydney Australia

DOI: 10.7189/jogh.12.04056

Download PDF

(28 pages)

Share:

Facebook
Twitter
LinkedIn
Abstract

Background

The burden of Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) in South Asian countries is increasing rapidly. Self-care behaviour plays a vital role in managing T2DM and preventing complications. Research on self-care behaviours among people with T2DM has been widely conducted in South Asian countries, but there are no systematic reviews that assess self-care behaviour among people with T2DM in South Asia. This study systematically assessed the studies reporting self-care behaviours among people with T2DM in South-Asia.

Methods

Adhering to the PRISMA guidelines, we searched six bibliographic databases (Scopus, PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Web of Science, and PsychInfo) to identify the relevant articles published between January 2000 through March 2022. Eligibility criteria included all observational and cross-sectional studies reporting on the prevalence of self-care behaviours (ie, diet, physical activity, medication adherence, blood glucose monitoring, and foot care) conducted in South Asian countries among people with T2DM.

Results

The database search returned 1567 articles. After deduplication (n = 758) and review of full-text articles (n = 192), 92 studies met inclusion criteria and were included. Forward and backward reference checks were performed on included studies, which resulted in an additional 18 articles. The pooled prevalence of adherence to blood glucose monitoring was 65% (95% CI = 49-80); 64% for medication adherence (95% CI = 53-74); 53% for physical activity (95% CI = 39-66); 48% for diet (95% CI = 38-58); 42% for foot care (95% CI = 30-54). About a quarter of people with T2DM consumed alcohol (25.2%, IQR = 13.8%-38.1%) and were using tobacco products (18.6%, IQR = 10.6%-23.8%).

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that the prevalence of self-care behaviours among people with T2DM in South Asia is low. This shows an urgent need to thoroughly investigate the barriers to the practising of self-care and design and implement interventions to improve diabetes self-care behaviour among people with T2DM in South Asia.

Print Friendly, PDF & Email

Diabetes mellitus is a major public health concern worldwide. The number of people with diabetes mellitus has increased from 108 million in 1980 to 422 million in 2014 [1] and 537 million in 2021 [2]. According to the International Diabetes Federation (IDF), this number is likely to reach 643 million by 2030 [2]. Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus (T2DM) constitutes more than 90% of all diabetes cases around the globe [2]. In recent years, the T2DM prevalence has significantly increased in low- and middle-income countries compared to higher-income countries in recent years [3]. The prevalence of T2DM in the South-Asian region specifically has doubled from 4.1% in 1980 to 8.6% in 2014 [3] and is estimated to reach 11.3% by 2045 [2].

South Asia is the southern region of Asia that comprises eight countries: Nepal, India, Bangladesh, Maldives, Sri Lanka, Pakistan, Bhutan, and Afghanistan [4]. South Asians are at higher risk of developing Non-Communicable Disease (NCDs), including T2DM, compared to other ethnic groups [5]. They tend to have more abdominal fat, more insulin resistance, low levels of adiponectin, low high-density lipoproteins, high low-density lipoproteins, and high triglycerides – characteristics which are responsible for the development of T2DM and cardiovascular diseases [5]. The prevalence of T2DM is the highest in Pakistan (26.7%) followed by India (8.3%), Bhutan (8.8%), Sri Lanka (9.8%), Bangladesh (12.5%), Maldives (6.7%), Afghanistan (8.7%) and Nepal (6.3%) [2]. The increased prevalence of T2DM negatively affects the socioeconomic circumstances for South Asian people by increasing diabetes-related health expenditure [6]. Poor knowledge about the disease, delayed diagnosis, poor adherence to self-care behaviours, and administration of harmful alternative medicines are the challenges for the treatment of T2DM among South-Asians [7,8].

The IDF has identified indicators for data collection (at least once in 12-24 months) to monitor the effectiveness of diabetes management, including self-care. The components of self-care are smoking status, alcohol consumption, self-monitoring (glucose, blood pressure, body weight), diet, physical activity, driving risk, medication adherence, insulin techniques, and dental care [9]. Similarly, the American Association of Diabetes Educators (AADE) has identified seven self-care behaviours: healthy eating, being active, monitoring, taking medication, problem-solving, healthy coping, and reducing risks as a framework for delivering patient-oriented diabetes care and education [10]. Adherence to self-care behaviours is essential for controlling adequate metabolism and preventing long-term complications [9,11–13]. Adherence to healthier behaviours significantly reduces the T2DM related complications and the mortality rate [14,15]. Despite this evidence, South-Asians adhere poorly to T2DM self-care behaviours [7,8,16]. To date, the components of self-care for management of T2DM in the South Asian region have not been defined by South Asian or the regional federations on diabetes.

As many South Asian countries have adopted the WHO’s Global Action Plan for the Prevention and Control of Non-Communicable Diseases [17], there is a need for research examining the planning, implementation, and evaluation of NCD prevention, control, and management strategies. Similarly, the higher risks of developing T2DM among South Asians have drawn the attention of policy makers in management and control of T2DM in this region. There are many studies examining the prevalence of self-care behaviours among those with T2DM in South-Asian countries [18–21]. However, a comprehensive systematic review and meta-analysis of this collective body of literature has not yet been conducted; posing challenges for policymakers to act on this. The literature on the prevalence of self-care behaviours among people with T2DM has been systematically analysed in regions other than South Asia [11,22–25] and reported widely varying rates of self-care behaviours. The findings from such reviews improve our understanding on practice of self-care among the people with T2DM across the regions. Because of the increasing burden of T2DM in South Asia [2] and South Asians being at higher risk for developing T2DM [5], there is an urgent need to design and implement effective prevention and management programs for T2DM. Improving our understanding on the practice of self-care behaviours among people with T2DM will help forward this agenda. This systematic review and meta-analysis aim to assess and summarize the findings on self-care behaviours among people with T2DM in South-Asia.

METHODS

This systematic review is reported in accordance with the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews and Meta-Analysis (PRISMA) guidelines [26]. The South Asian countries included in this study were Bangladesh, Bhutan, India, Nepal, Pakistan, Maldives, Sri Lanka, and Afghanistan [4]. The review was registered with PROSPERO, an international prospective register of systematic reviews (Registration number: CRD42021242930).

Search strategy

We systematically searched six bibliographic databases: Scopus, PubMed, CINAHL, Embase, Web of Science, and PsychInfo for articles published between January 2000 through March 2022. This time frame aligns with the launch of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) in 2000 [27]. A search strategy for each database was developed with all the possible combinations of three keywords, “Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus”, “Self-care behaviour”, and “South-Asia” (See Appendix S1 in the Online Supplementary Document). Search tools such as PICO, PICOS, or SPIDER were not used because this study only reviewed observational and cross-sectional studies. Medical Subject Headings (MeSH), boolean operators, wildcards, truncation, and field tags were used where appropriate. Both the reference lists (ie, backward search) and articles citing (ie, forwards search) of included studies were checked by two authors (GP, PD) for additional relevant studies.

Inclusion and exclusion criteria

Observational, and cross-sectional studies that quantitatively reported on the practice of self-care behaviours (ie, diet, physical activity, medication adherence, blood glucose monitoring, and foot care) among adults with T2DM from South-Asian countries that were published in the English language were included. These five self-care behaviours were based on the key indicators for self-care behaviour as suggested by the IDF and AADE [9,10]. Furthermore, these domains of self-care were also assessed by several review studies on self-care among people with T2DM in other settings [11,22–25]. Studies not mentioning the type of diabetes examined, studies based on the same data set, and studies without a full-text publication available were excluded.

Screening

One author (GP) performed the online database search in first week of April 2021 (updated on 25 March 2022). Articles identified through the search were exported into the EndNote referencing software and deduplicated. Titles and abstracts were screened independently by two reviewers (GP, PD). The potentially eligible studies underwent full-text screening using the selection criteria. Disagreements between the two reviewers (GP and PD) was discussed in consultation with a third reviewer (LR). Remaining disagreements were discussed within the study team (GP, PD, TB, LR, UNY, TS, and CV) until a consensus was reached. A detailed study selection process is presented in the PRISMA flowchart (Figure 1) [26].

Figure 1.  PRISMA flow diagram (2009) for reporting systematic review and meta-analysis.

Data extraction and quality assessment

A data extraction template similar to the one used in the systematic review of Stephani et al. [24] was developed in Microsoft Excel to collect information from the selected studies for the analysis. Information on the primary author, publication year, country, study design, sample size, demographic characteristics of the population (eg, age, gender, and other contextual information), and reported self-care behaviours were extracted.

The Jonna Briggs Institute (JBI) critical appraisal checklist was used to assess the methodological quality of the selected studies following each study design [28]. Two independent reviewers (GP, PD) critically appraised the selected articles using the JBI critical appraisal checklist. This tool involves assessing the study’s methodological quality in dealing with bias at different study stages. A checklist for analytical cross-sectional studies (with 8 appraising items) and another for prevalence studies (with 9 appraising items) were used. Each response was scored with 1 (if the response to the question was “yes”) and 0 (if the response to the question was “no” or “unclear” or “not applicable”). Based on the score, studies were categorized into high (80% and above), moderate (60%-80%) and low quality (<60%) [29]. Discrepancies between reviewers (GP, PD) on study quality assessment were resolved through discussion and consultation with a third reviewer (LR).

Meta-analysis

A systematic narrative synthesis was performed to describe the characteristics and results of all included studies. The narrative synthesis followed the Guidance of the Conduct of Narrative Synthesis in Systematic Reviews [30]. Data synthesis and analysis were performed by one reviewer (GP) and the findings were discussed with all other team members.

In the meta-analysis, the overall pooled prevalence for each domain of self-care behaviours was conducted. A subgroup analysis of self-care behaviours including diet, physical activity, and foot care was conducted based on studies that either used a standardised tool to assess self-care domains or those that clearly defined the self-care domain and studies that did not clarify either the measure used to assess self-care domain or that did not define self-care domain. Medication adherence was not considered for subgroup analysis as most included studies used standard tools, while some reported regular intake of medication as recommended by their health care providers. Similarly, blood glucose monitoring differs from person to person based on their blood glucose level, so subgroup analysis was based on studies that assessed blood glucose monitoring on monthly basis and studies that assessed blood glucose monitoring at least once in three months. We used the quality effects model (QE) for bias adjustment [31]. The advantage of the QE model is that the between-study variability is adjusted based on the relative quality rank of the studies instead of on random variables assigned by the random effect (RE) model. The heterogeneity of the studies was reported by the I-squared value (I2) which measures the proportion of total variance between studies beyond random error [32]. As significant heterogeneity was detected among the studies (I2>50%) in the meta-analysis, a random-effects model was used. All the analyses were conducted using the MetaXL software version 5.3 [33]. Publication bias was assessed using both a graphical (Doi plot) and quantitative (Luis Furuya-Kanamori (LFK) index) examination for potential small-study effects [32]. LFK indices are defined as no (±1), minor (between ±1 and ±2), and major (>±2) asymmetry, respectively. Sensitivity and subgroup analysis were performed for extreme levels of heterogeneity between studies (I2≥90%) [32].

RESULTS

Study selection

A total of 1585 studies were identified through the database search (n = 1567) and forward and backward reference checking (n = 18). The duplicates (n = 809) were removed, and 758 studies underwent the title and abstract screening. Of these, 260 studies were eligible for full-text retrieval and 192 studies were retrieved with full-text articles. It was not possible to access the full-text of 68 studies, which were conference abstracts or articles published in local paper-based journals. After full text review, 92 studies met the inclusion criteria and were included in the qualitative synthesis, and 70 were eligible to be included in the meta-analysis (22 were excluded due to insufficiently disaggregated data). A detailed process of study screening and selection is presented in the PRISMA flow diagram (Figure 1).

Quality assessment of the included studies

Quality assessment of 92 studies included in this review was done using Jonna Briggs Institute (JBI) Critical Appraisal Tool based on study design. Thirty-five studies (38%) were assessed as high quality, 33 studies (36%) were assessed as moderate quality, and 24 studies (26%) were assessed as poor quality (Appendix S2 in the Online Supplementary Document). The detailed information on quality assessment of individual study is presented in Table 1.

Table 1.  General characteristics of included studies

SMBG – self-monitoring of blood glucose, NR – not reported, IQR – interquartile range, SD – standard deviation

Characteristics of the included studies

Of the total included studies (n = 92), 50 were conducted in India [18,34–82], 15 in Pakistan [19,83–96], 15 in Nepal [20,97–110], 10 in Bangladesh [21,111–119] and two in Sri-Lanka [120,121]. No studies were conducted in the Maldives, Bhutan, and Afghanistan. 78 studies were based on data recorded in health facilities (hospitals, primary health care centres, diabetic clinics, and pharmacies) while 14 studies were based on data collected in community settings. The general characteristics of the studies are summarized in Table 1. The total number of participants in the included studies was 36 180 (16 601 male and 19 559 female) and ranged from 48 participants in the smallest study [51] to 11 917 in the largest study [115]. The mean age of the participants, as reported by 66 studies, ranged from 43 to 64 years. 24 studies reported the length of time participants were living with T2DM, which ranged from 1.5 to 9.7 years. Thirty studies reported on smoking habits (n = 30) while fifteen studies reported on alcohol use (n = 15). The median score for tobacco use (smoke and/or smokeless form) was 18.6% (IQR = 10.6%-23.8%) and 25.2% (IQR = 13.8%-38.1%) for alcohol consumption among the participants.

Domains of T2DM self-care behaviours

Among all the self-care behaviours, physical activity (n = 61) was the most reported self-care behaviour followed by medication intake (n = 57), dietary habits (n = 56), self-monitoring of blood glucose (n = 42), and foot care (n = 30). Studies adopted a wide range of scales (n = 58) to assess the different domains of self-care behaviours. Many studies did not provide information about the tool used (n = 27) and some studies (n = 7) reported using author-developed tools. The Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure (SDSCA) [122] was used by 16 studies and the Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (DSMQ) [123] by seven studies to assess the different domains of self-care behaviours. Similarly, the Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (MMAS) scale was used by 23 studies in assessing the status of medication adherence among the study participants [124,125]. Four studies used the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (GPAQ) [126] and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (IPAQ) [127] was used by three studies to measure the physical activity level of the study participants. The findings on self-care behaviours were reported in the form of a percentage, mean and median.

Physical activity

Physical activity was assessed by 61 studies (Table 2). The Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure (n = 15), the Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (n = 7), the Global Physical Activity Questionnaire (n = 4), and the International Physical Activity Questionnaire (n = 3) were the most used tools in assessing the study participants’ physical activity. Two studies reported the mean number of days in a week participants were physically active, ranging from 4.08 to 4.23 days [20,45]. Additionally, four studies reported the mean score for physical activity ranging from 3.74 to 5.1 (scale range of 0-10, where 10 represents the optimal practice of self-care) [73,76,86,95].

Table 2.  Physical activity

SD – standard deviation, IQR – interquartile range

The overall pooled prevalence of adherence to sufficient physical activity was 53% (95% CI = 39-66) and ranged from 9% to 80%. In terms of country-specific pooled prevalence, studies conducted in Sri Lanka (n = 1) reported an adherence of 79% (95% CI = 74-82), followed by Bangladesh (n = 5; 58%, 95% CI = 23-91), Nepal (n = 9; 51%, 95% CI = 39-63), India (n = 27; 45%, 95% CI = 37-52) and Pakistan (n = 5; 35%, 95% CI = 12-59) (Figure 2). Adherence to sufficient physical activity was 54% (95% CI = 38%-69%) for studies that either used a standardised tool to assess physical activity or studies that clearly defined what sufficient physical activity constitutes. Adherence to sufficient physical activity was 47% (95% CI = 34%-59%) for studies that did not clarify either the measure used to assess physical activity or studies that did not define what sufficient physical activity constitutes (Figure S1-S2 in the Online Supplementary Document).

Figure 2.  Pooled estimate of physical activity among people with T2DM.

Medication use

57 studies measured adherence to the medication use (Table 3). The Morisky Medication Adherence Scale (n = 23) and the Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure (n = 10) were the most used tools in measuring adherence to medication use. A study from Nepal reported a mean of 6.77 number of days per week participants’ adhering to medication [20]. Non-adherence to Oral Hypoglycaemic Agents and Insulin was assessed by a study from Bangladesh [113], where 20% and 6.6% were non-adherence to Oral Hypoglycaemic Agents and Insulin respectively.

Table 3.  Medication adherence

SD – standard deviation, OHA – oral hypoglycaemic agent, d – day

The pooled prevalence of adherence to medication use was 64% (95% CI = 53-74) and ranged between 3% and 98%. Studies conducted in Nepal reported a higher prevalence of adherence to medication use (n = 6; 86%, 95% CI = 64-100), followed by India (n = 19; 64%, 95% CI = 52-75), Pakistan (n = 6; 50%, 95% CI = 21-78), Bangladesh (n = 1; 43%, 95% CI = 34-52) and Sri-Lanka (n = 1; 23%, 95% CI = 17-29) (Figure 3).

Figure 3.  Pooled estimate of medication intake among people with T2DM.

Dietary habits

56 studies explored the study participants’ dietary intake (Table 4) using a range of dietary measurement tools. Summary of the Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure (n = 15) and the Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (n = 7) were the most used self-care tools in assessing the dietary practice of the study participants. Some studies reported the mean number of days in a week participant’s adhering to a healthy diet ranging from 4.32 to 5.42 days [20,45,47]. In addition, the reported mean score for dietary control (limiting sweets and carbohydrate-rich foods, consuming recommended diet) varied from 3.9 to 6.6 (scale range of 0-10, where 10 represents the optimal practice of self-care) [73,76,86,95]. Non-adherence to healthy dietary habits was reported by four studies whose values range from 41% to 88% [100,107,112,113].

Table 4.  Dietary habits

SD – standard deviation, IQR – interquartile range, d – days

*General diet: Consumption of generally helpful or prescribed diet.

†Specific diet: Consumption of five or more servings of “fruits and vegetables” and avoiding fat foods.

‡Dietary control: Limiting sweets and carbohydrate rich foods, consuming recommended diet.

The prevalence of adherence to a healthy diet varied widely across studies, from 0% to 95.7%. The overall pooled prevalence of adherence to a healthy diet was 48% (95% CI = 38-58). In terms of country-specific analysis, the studies conducted in India (n = 22) had an adherence to a healthy diet of 51% (95% CI = 39-63), followed by Pakistan (n = 6; 51%, 95%CI: 27-75), Nepal (n = 4; 44%, 95%CI: 10-79) and Bangladesh (n = 2; 24%, 95%CI: 16-31) (Figure 4). Adherence to a healthy diet was 40% (95%CI = 29%-53%) for studies that either used a standardised tool to assess diet or studies that clearly defined what a healthy diet constitutes. Adherence to a healthy diet was 57% (95%CI = 42%-72%) for studies that did not clarify either the measure used to assess diet or studies that did not define what a healthy diet constitutes (Figure S3-S4 in the Online Supplementary Document).

Figure 4.  Pooled estimate of Dietary habit among people with T2DM.

Blood glucose monitoring

42 studies investigated blood glucose monitoring (Table 5). The Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure (n = 10) and the Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (n = 7) were the most used tools in assessing the blood glucose monitoring among the study participants. The mean number of days in a week practicing adequate self-monitoring of blood glucose was reported by two studies and ranged from 0.61 to 1.33 days [20,45]. Similarly, the reported mean scores for glucose management ranged from 3.92 to 6.82 (scale ranging from 0 to 10, where 10 represents the highest practice of self-care behaviour) [73,76,86,95]. However, non-adherence to blood glucose monitoring was reported by a study from Bangladesh [112,113] which ranged from 32% to 37%, while 46.61% of participants did not monitor the glucose level regularly in Nepal [107].

Table 5.  Blood glucose monitoring

IQR – interquartile range, SD – standard deviation, HbA1c – glycated haemoglobin, d – days, mo – months

*Testing blood glucose: Testing of blood glucose and as recommended by health care provider

The overall pooled prevalence of blood glucose monitoring was 65% (95%CI: 49-80), ranging between 18% to 95%. A higher prevalence of adequate blood glucose monitoring among people with T2DM was found in India (n = 14; 68%, 95% CI = 53-82), followed by Pakistan (n = 1; 66%, 95% CI = 61-71), Bangladesh (n = 3; 60%, 95% CI = 42-76), and Nepal (n = 3; 55%, 95% CI: 25-84) (Figure 5). The sub-group analysis for blood glucose monitoring was assessed based on monitoring blood glucose levels at least once a month and/or at least once in three months.

Figure 5.  Pooled estimate of blood glucose monitoring among people with T2DM.

In the sub-group analysis, the pooled prevalence of monthly blood glucose monitoring was 63% (95% CI = 48-77), while it was 67% (95% CI = 53-79) for the at least once in three months interval (Figure S5-S6 in the Online Supplementary Document).

Foot care

Thirty studies investigated the practice of foot care (Table 6). The Summary of Diabetes Self-Care Activities measure tool (n = 10) was most used in assessing the study participants’ foot care. The mean number of days in a week participants practicing foot care ranged between 0.55 and 2.16 days [20,45]. A study from India among 200 people with T2DM reported that the median number of days in the past week inspecting shoes or footwear was “0” [60]. Studies from Bangladesh reported on non-adherence to foot care ranging from 43.2 to 70% [112,113].

Table 6.  Foot care

SD – standard deviation

*Foot care: Checking feet and inside of shoe, and washing, and drying feet.

The overall pooled prevalence of adherence to foot care was 42% (95% CI = 30-54) and ranged between 6% and 92%. Studies conducted in Pakistan reported the highest adherence to foot care (n = 2; 72%, 95%CI = 47-94) followed by Nepal (n = 3; 52%, 95% CI = 19-84), Bangladesh (n = 1; 37%, 95% CI = 32-43) and India (n = 15; 33%, 95% CI = 21-45) (Figure 6). Sufficient adherence to foot care was 37% (95% CI = 18-57) for studies that either used a standardised tool to assess foot care or studies that clearly defined what adequate foot care constitutes. Adherence to sufficient foot care was 29% (95% CI = 8-57) for studies that did not clarify either the measure used to assess foot care or studies that did not define what sufficient foot care constitutes (Figures S7-S8 in the Online Supplementary Document).

Figure 6.  Pooled estimate of foot care among people with T2DM.

DISCUSSION

Adherence to self-care behaviour prevents T2DM-associated morbidities and mortalities [14,15]. The systematic reviews that included studies from Ethiopia [22,23], Sub-Saharan Africa [24], and LMICs [25] reported the poor practice of self-care behaviours among the people with T2DM and stressed the need for developing and implementing interventions to improve self-care behaviour. South Asians are at higher risk of developing NCDs, including type 2 diabetes [5], and the health care resources in this region are limited [128,129]. While previous systematic reviews on self-care behaviours have been conducted in various regions [11,22–25], no reviews have focused on studies conducted in South Asia. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first systematic review and meta-analysis to systematically assess and report the evidence on self-care behaviours among people with T2DM in South Asia countries. We also conducted a meta-analysis to calculate the pooled prevalence of different domains of self-care behaviour reported in 70 studies. The prevalence of T2DM self-care behaviour was highest for blood glucose monitoring, followed by medication adherence, physical activity, diet, and foot care.

Physical activity was the most frequently measured self-care behaviour among included studies. The pooled prevalence of adherence to physical activity was 53%. This shows insufficient participation in physical activity among South Asians with T2DM. Similar findings were observed in reviews from Ethiopia conducted by Dagnew et al. [23] (pooled prevalence = 48.29%) and Katema et al. [22] (pooled prevalence = 49%). In contrast, lower adherence to physical activity was reported in Canadian studies (21%) by Thiel et al. [130] and LMICs (41.2%) by Morge et al. [25]. This discrepancy might be because of the higher presence of manual labour in low-income countries compared to sedentary occupation and personal motorized transportation in high-income countries [131]. However, studies identified that time constraint, unwillingness, poor awareness level, comorbid conditions, social issues, lack of infrastructure and insufficient emphasis by physicians were the barriers to physical activity among South Asians with T2DM [59,100,120,132]. Engaging in sufficient physical activity reduces the risk of T2DM and plays a significant role in reducing the glycaemic level among people with T2DM [133,134]. This illustrates that physical activity is a key self-care behaviour for diabetes management and needs to be improved in South Asians with T2DM by designing culturally acceptable and person-centred interventions to facilitate and encourage people to adopt healthy behaviours.

The pooled prevalence of adherence to medication use in this review was 64%. This finding is consistent with the review from Sub-Saharan Africa conducted by Stephani et al. [24] that reported a mean adherence to medication use of 64% (range = 39%-88%). However, a higher prevalence of adherence to medication use (71%, range = 59%-83%) is reported by Morge et al. [25]. The lower adherence to medication use in South Asia might be the result of a poor understanding of the role of medication use in controlling blood glucose levels and the preference for traditional home remedies [135]. The practice of fasting, a cultural practice observed by people from various faiths, may impede compliance with medication intake [136,137]. Unaffordability, lack of information about prescribed medicines and their importance, ignorance and unwillingness, forgetfulness, poor drug supply from health facilities and poor doctor-patient relationship are significant factors for the lower adherence to medication use among the people with T2DM in South Asian countries [19,46,61,104,107]. Although adherence to medication use has a positive impact in controlling the glycaemic level [138], almost half of the South Asians did not adhere to their prescribed medication use and are at risk of developing acute and long-term complications, consequently leading to an increased hospitalization rate and higher medical costs [138–140]. Interventions aiming to raise awareness of the role of regular use of medication in controlling blood glucose levels are to be designed and implemented to adhere to the treatment regimen, and primary health care facilities need to be equipped with proper infrastructure required for screening of diabetes, provision of regular drug supplies and counselling services.

Less than half (48%) of the study participants adhered to healthy dietary behaviour. This finding is consistent with the reviews from Ethiopia conducted by Dagnew et al. [23] and Katema et al. [22], both reporting a pooled estimate of 50% for good dietary practice. A study by Stephani et al. [24] from Sub-Saharan Africa reported adherence to a healthy diet ranging between 33%-87%, while a study by Morge et al. [25] examining adherence in low- and middle-income countries reported 58%. A study by Coyle et al. [11] examining adherence in high-income countries reported healthy diet adherence ranging between 50% and 80.9%. As such, these studies reported a relatively higher prevalence of adherence to dietary habits than those reported in our study. The differences in study outcomes might be due to differences in foods consumed in other countries and the difference in cultural and traditional values. For example, South Asians often eat certain foods because of their cultural and traditional importance, even if they are known to be unhealthy [135]. In addition, South Asians consume high amounts of white rice, other refined grains, saturated fats, and low amounts of fibre and vegetables; these food patterns increase the risk of T2DM [141,142]. Furthermore, poor quality information on dietary modification and misconceptions on what a healthy diet constitutes might have also restricted adherence to healthy dietary behaviours among South Asians [135]. Cost constraints are also a barrier to consuming the recommended amount of fruits and vegetables among South Asians [143]. Evidence shows that the practice of fasting, a religious belief observed with Hindus (Navratri, Mahashivratri, Janmashtami, Ashtami, Ekadashi), Muslim (Ramadan), and Jain (Ekasana, Digambarupvas), has also impacted the practicing of healthy dietary habits [136]. As diet plays an important role in controlling glycaemic levels and preventing T2DM complications [144,145], there is an need for addressing dietary behaviours among people with T2DM in South Asia. This can be achieved by implementing culturally tailored and contextual interventions on healthy diets, given the importance of diet in maintaining the recommended level of blood glucose.

Regular blood glucose monitoring improves blood glucose level among people with T2DM [146] and its frequency varies from person to person depending on the patient’s needs and health care provider’s advice. We found that the pooled prevalence of blood glucose monitoring was 65%. However, studies by Morge et al. [25] (range = 13%-79%), Ketema et al. [22] (pooled prevalence = 28%), and Dagnew et al. [23] (pooled prevalence = 31.89%) found a lower prevalence of blood glucose monitoring than our study. This might be because we only considered those monitoring the blood glucose level at monthly or at least once in three months intervals as adhering to the blood glucose monitoring, while the above-mentioned studies considered daily, weekly, monthly, three-monthly, bi-annually and other intervals. Unlike other self-care behaviours, it was difficult to compare the practice of blood glucose monitoring among people with T2DM due to varied treatment goals. Also, the access to glucometers at the household level in South-Asia is minimal because of cost constraints, thus contributing to suboptimal blood glucose monitoring. The engagement of community health workers in primary health care centres can ensure comprehensive health care services are delivered and self-management of NCDs is promoted [147]. As such, community health workers can be trained to conduct regular visits to patients with T2DM and provide social prescriptions required for adopting healthy self-care behaviour.

The overall pooled prevalence of adherence to foot care was 42%. A lower prevalence of foot care than in this study was observed in the review by Morge et al. [25] which reported a median adherence to foot care of 36.5% (IQR = 13.6%-59.2%). However, the studies conducted by Dagnew et al. [23] (pooled prevalence = 63.61%) and Ketema et al. [22] (pooled prevalence = 58%) reported higher adherence to diabetic foot-care. The lower prevalence of foot care among people with T2DM in the South-Asian region might be the result of the practice of barefoot walking, use of inappropriate footwear, poor awareness of foot care and its complications, and poor counselling on foot care from service providers [148,149]. Foot problems due to T2DM can have a large economic impact which deteriorates the quality of life and ultimately results in physical impairment [150]. There is a high need for health literacy programs on foot care and its complication among people with T2DM in this region.

Strengths and limitations:

This study has several strengths. This review adhered to the PRISMA guidelines [26] and is registered in the PROSPERO website [151] (Registration number: CRD42021242930). We included cross-sectional and observational studies searching multiple databases and performed forward and backward reference checking to ensure no relevant articles were missed. In addition, this study considered and categorized the studies as those defining the study tool and/or providing a clear definition of self-care domain and those not reporting the study tool and/or not providing a clear definition of self-care domain (reporting only good or poor practice). This allowed for sub-group analyses and pooled prevalence calculation to be done separately. Moreover, this study is the first of its kind to provide comprehensive findings on the practice of self-care behaviours among people with T2DM in South Asian countries.

This study also had some limitations. The findings of the sub-group analysis, specifically among studies not defining study tools and/or not providing a clear definition of self-care domains assessed, should be used with caution. Another limitation was that only “high adherence” to medication intake was categorized as adequate. This is because moderate adherence was unevenly calculated (scoring for moderate adherence differed) among the included studies. In addition, the pooled prevalence of adequate blood glucose monitoring might be over-reported, as we included only those monitoring blood glucose every month or at least once in three months in the meta-analysis. Moreover, the country-specific findings on each domain of self-care should be interpreted with caution, as the number of studies varied between countries, with some countries reporting very low numbers. Finally, outcomes might be biased as most of the included studies only assessed self-reported self-care behaviours.

CONCLUSION

The findings of this meta-analysis suggest that the overall self-care behaviour among people with T2DM in South Asia was low. Of five self-care domains, blood glucose monitoring and medication adherence were relatively common compared to physical activity, diet, and foot care. There is a need for designing and implementing high-quality, community-based, cost-effective, and culturally-tailored interventions to improve self-care among people with T2DM in South Asia.

Additional material

Online Supplementary Document

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank and acknowledge Dr Rashidul Alam Mahumud at Faculty of Medicine and Health, The University of Sydney for his valuable suggestions during the process of conducting the review and drafting the manuscript.

[1] Funding: The authors declare that no funding or specific grant was provided for this study.

[2] Authorship contributions: GP conceptualised the study and designed the protocol under the supervision of LR and CV. GP, LR, and CV identified and finalised the search strategies. GP independently performed the search; GP and PD contributed to screening, data extraction, and quality assessment of studies. TB conducted the meta-analysis and GP drafted the manuscript. LR, CV, UNY, TS, TB, and PD reviewed the draft manuscript, provided critical comments, and approved the final manuscript.

[3] Disclosure of interest: The authors completed the ICMJE Unified Competing Interest Form (available upon request from the corresponding author) and declare no relevant interests.

references

[1] World Health OrganizationDiabetes 2020. Available: https://www.who.int/news-room/fact-sheets/detail/diabetes. Accessed: 7 March 2021.

[2] International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas (10th Ed.): International Diabetes Federation, Brussels, Belgium; 2021. Available: www.diabetesatlas.org. Accessed: 21 March 2021.

[3] World Health Organization. GLOBAL REPORT ON DIABETES 2016. Available: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/204871/9789241565257_eng.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed: 11 February 2021.

[4] The World Bank. World Bank Country and Lending Groups 2021. Available: https://datahelpdesk.worldbank.org/knowledgebase/articles/906519-world-bank-country-and-lending-groups. Accessed: 21 March 2021.

[5] R Unnikrishnan, RM Anjana, and V Mohan. Diabetes in South Asians: is the phenotype different? Diabetes. 2014;63:53-5. DOI: 10.2337/db13-1592. [PMID:24357697]

[6] Waisundara VY, Naofumi S. Diabetes Mellitus in South Asia In: G. AR, editor. Diabetes and Its Complications. London: IntechOpen; 2017.

[7] A Misra, N Sattar, N Tandon, U Shrivastava, NK Vikram, and K Khunti. Clinical management of type 2 diabetes in south Asia. Lancet Diabetes Endocrinol. 2018;6:979-91. DOI: 10.1016/S2213-8587(18)30199-2. [PMID:30287103]

[8] PS Sohal. Prevention and Management of Diabetes in South Asians. Can J Diabetes. 2008;32:206-10. DOI: 10.1016/S1499-2671(08)23011-X

[9] International Diabetes Federation. IDF Diabetes Atlas (9th Ed.). International Diabetes Federation, Brussels, Belgium (2019), ISBN: 978-2-930229-87-4.

[10] AADE7 Self-Care Behaviors. Diabetes Educ. 2008;34:445-9. DOI: 10.1177/0145721708316625. [PMID:18535317]

[11] ME Coyle, K Francis, and Y Chapman. Self-management activities in diabetes care: a systematic review. Aust Health Rev. 2013;37:513-22. DOI: 10.1071/AH13060. [PMID:24018058]

[12] M Modarresi, S Gholami, P Habibi, and A Ghadiri-Anari. Relationship between Self Care Management with Glycemic Control in Type 2 Diabetic Patients. Int J Prev Med. 2020;11:127 DOI: 10.4103/ijpvm.IJPVM_207_19. [PMID:33088455]

[13] World Health Organization. Adherence to Long-term Therapies: Evidence for action 2003. Available: https://www.who.int/chp/knowledge/publications/adherence_full_report.pdf?ua=1. Accessed: 12 February 2021.

[14] P Gaede, P Vedel, HH Parving, and O Pedersen. Intensified multifactorial intervention in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus and microalbuminuria: the Steno type 2 randomised study. Lancet. 1999;353:617-22. DOI: 10.1016/S0140-6736(98)07368-1. [PMID:10030326]

[15] RJ Macisaac and G Jerums. Intensive glucose control and cardiovascular outcomes in type 2 diabetes. Heart Lung Circ. 2011;20:647-54. DOI: 10.1016/j.hlc.2010.07.013. [PMID:20807681]

[16] J Gray, C Millett, S Saxena, G Netuveli, K Khunti, and A Majeed. Ethnicity and quality of diabetes care in a health system with universal coverage: population-based cross-sectional survey in primary care. J Gen Intern Med. 2007;22:1317-20. DOI: 10.1007/s11606-007-0267-4. [PMID:17594128]

[17] World Health Organization. Global action plan for the prevention and control of noncommunicable diseases 2013-2020 Available: https://apps.who.int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/94384/9789241506236_eng.pdf?sequence=1. Accessed: 21 March 2022.

[18] M Verma, N Sharma, Rashi, V Arora, MA Bashar, and B Nath. Diabetic Foot Care Knowledge and Practices in Rural North India: Insights for Preventive Podiatry. J Assoc Physicians India. 2021;69:30-4. [PMID:33527808]

[19] S Malik, IH Khaliq, HZ Mahmood, S Khaqan, Y Abdullah, and N Rasheed. Self-management practices among type 2 diabetes patients attending physicians and pharmacists: An exploratory study from Lahore, Pakistan. Ethiop J Health Dev. 2020;34:165-70.

[20] P Bhandari and M Kim. Self-Care Behaviors of Nepalese Adults With Type 2 Diabetes A Mixed Methods Analysis. Nurs Res. 2016;65:202-14. DOI: 10.1097/NNR.0000000000000153. [PMID:27124256]

[21] A Mannan, MM Hasan, F Akter, MM Rana, NA Chowdhury, and LB Rawal. Factors associated with low adherence to medication among patients with type 2 diabetes at different healthcare facilities in southern Bangladesh. Glob Health Action. 2021;14:1872895. DOI: 10.1080/16549716.2021.1872895. [PMID:33475476]

[22] DB Ketema, CT Leshargie, GD Kibret, MA Assemie, AA Alamneh, and GM Kassa. Level of self-care practice among diabetic patients in Ethiopia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2020;20:309 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-020-8425-2. [PMID:32164638]

[23] B Dagnew, G Debalkie Demissie, and D Abebaw Angaw. Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis of Good Self-Care Practice among People Living with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in Ethiopia: A National Call to Bolster Lifestyle Changes. Evid Based Complement Alternat Med. 2021;2021:8896896. DOI: 10.1155/2021/8896896. [PMID:33688368]

[24] V Stephani, D Opoku, and D Beran. Self-management of diabetes in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. BMC Public Health. 2018;18:1148 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-018-6050-0. [PMID:30268115]

[25] V Mogre, NA Johnson, F Tzelepis, JE Shaw, and C Paul. A systematic review of adherence to diabetes self-care behaviours: Evidence from low- and middle-income countries. J Adv Nurs. 2019;75:3374-89. DOI: 10.1111/jan.14190. [PMID:31453637]

[26] D Moher, A Liberati, J Tetzlaff, and DG Altman. Preferred reporting items for systematic reviews and meta-analyses: the PRISMA statement. PLoS Med. 2009;6:e1000097. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pmed.1000097. [PMID:19621072]

[27] United Nations Millennium Development Goals. Millennium Summit, 6-8 September 2000, New York Available: https://www.un.org/en/conferences/environment/newyork2000. Accessed: 25 December 2021.

[28] Joanna Briggs Institute. Critical Appraisal Tools 2017. Available: https://jbi.global/critical-appraisal-tools. Accessed: 21 March 2021.

[29] SC Ifeagwu, JC Yang, R Parkes-Ratanshi, and C Brayne. Health financing for universal health coverage in Sub-Saharan Africa: a systematic review. Glob Health Res Policy. 2021;6:8 DOI: 10.1186/s41256-021-00190-7. [PMID:33641673]

[30] Popay J, Roberts H, Sowden A, Petticrew M, Arai L, Rodgers M, et al, editors. Guidance on the conduct of narrative synthesis in systematic Reviews. A Product from the ESRC Methods Programme. Version 12006.

[31] M Borenstein, JP Higgins, LV Hedges, and HR Rothstein. Basics of meta-analysis: I(2) is not an absolute measure of heterogeneity. Res Synth Methods. 2017;8:5-18. DOI: 10.1002/jrsm.1230. [PMID:28058794]

[32] L Furuya-Kanamori, JJ Barendregt, and SAR Doi. A new improved graphical and quantitative method for detecting bias in meta-analysis. Int J Evid-Based Healthc. 2018;16:195-203. DOI: 10.1097/XEB.0000000000000141. [PMID:29621038]

[33] Barendregt J, Doi S. MetaXL user guide version 5.3. EpiGear International Pty Ltd. 2016.

[34] VN Shah, PK Kamdar, and N Shah. Assessing the knowledge, attitudes and practice of type 2 diabetes among patients of Saurashtra region, Gujarat. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2009;29:118-22. DOI: 10.4103/0973-3930.54288. [PMID:20165648]

[35] G Sultana, P Kapur, M Aqil, M Alam, and K Pillai. Drug utilization of oral hypoglycemic agents in a university teaching hospital in India. J Clin Pharm Ther. 2010;35:267-77. DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2710.2009.01080.x. [PMID:20831529]

[36] R Malathy, MP Narmadha, S Ramesh, JM Alvin, and BN Dinesh. Effect of a diabetes counseling programme on knowledge, attitude and practice among diabetic patients in Erode district of South India. J Young Pharm. 2011;3:65-72. DOI: 10.4103/0975-1483.76422. [PMID:21607057]

[37] V Gopichandran, S Lyndon, MK Angel, BP Manayalil, KR Blessy, and RG Alex. Diabetes self-care activities: A community-based survey in urban southern India. Natl Med J India. 2012;25:14-7. [PMID:22680314]

[38] M Patel, IM Patel, YM Patel, and SK Rathi. Factors associated with consumption of diabetic diet among type 2 diabetic subjects from Ahmedabad, Western India. J Health Popul Nutr. 2012;30:447-55. [PMID:23304911]

[39] ST Sasi, M Kodali, KC Burra, BS Muppala, P Gutta, and MK Bethanbhatla. Self Care Activities, Diabetic Distress and other Factors which Affected the Glycaemic Control in a Tertiary Care Teaching Hospital in South India. J Clin Diagn Res. 2013;7:857-60. [PMID:23814728]

[40] S Arulmozhi and T Mahalakshmy. Self care and medication adherence among type 2 diabetics in Puducherry, Southern India: A hospital based study. J Clin Diagn Res. 2014;8:UC01 [PMID:24959496]

[41] GH Khan, M Aqil, KK Pillai, MA Ahmad, P Kapur, and MR Ain. Therapeutic adherence: A prospective drug utilization study of oral hypoglycemic in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus. Asian Pac J Trop Dis. 2014;4:S347-52. DOI: 10.1016/S2222-1808(14)60469-2

[42] I Santhanakrishnan, S Lakshminarayanan, and SS Kar. Factors affecting compliance to management of diabetes in Urban Health Center of a tertiary care teaching hospital of south India. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2014;5:365-8. DOI: 10.4103/0976-9668.136186. [PMID:25097416]

[43] S Saurabh, S Sarkar, K Selvaraj, S Kar, S Kumar, and G Roy. Effectiveness of foot care education among people with type 2 diabetes in rural Puducherry, India. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2014;18:106-10. DOI: 10.4103/2230-8210.126587. [PMID:24701439]

[44] Sajith M, Pankaj M, Pawar A, Modi A, Sumariya R, editors. Medication Adherence To Antidiabetic Therapy In Patients With Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.2014.

[45] AM Abraham, PM Sudhir, M Philip, and G Bantwal. Illness perceptions and perceived barriers to self-care in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: an exploratory study from India. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2015;35:137-44. DOI: 10.1007/s13410-014-0266-z

[46] S Divya and P Nadig. Factors contributing to non-adherence to medication among type 2 diabetes mellitus in patients attending tertiary care hospital in South India. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2015;8:274-6.

[47] S Basu, M Khobragade, A Kumar, and DK Raut. Medical adherence and its predictors in Diabetes Mellitus patients attending government hospitals in the Indian Capital, Delhi, 2013: a cross sectional study. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2015;35:S95-101. DOI: 10.1007/s13410-014-0232-9

[48] D Rajasekharan, V Kulkarni, B Unnikrishnan, N Kumar, R Holla, and R Thapar. Self-care activities among patients with diabetes attending a tertiary care hospital in Mangalore Karnataka, India. Ann Med Health Sci Res. 2015;5:59-64. DOI: 10.4103/2141-9248.149791. [PMID:25745579]

[49] T Das, B Wallang, P Semwal, S Basu, TR Padhi, and MH Ali. Changing Clinical Presentation, Current Knowledge-Attitude-Practice, and Current Vision Related Quality of Life in Self-Reported Type 2 Diabetes Patients with Retinopathy in Eastern India: The LVPEI Eye and Diabetes Study. J Ophthalmol. 2016;2016:3423814. DOI: 10.1155/2016/3423814. [PMID:27843643]

[50] V Karthikeyan, S Madhusudhan, and S Selvamuthukumaran. Intervention to improve adherence to type 2 diabetes mellitus subjects in rural teaching hospital. Pharm Lett. 2016;8:26-32.

[51] M Pathania, HK Dutt, JB Gogoi, V Rathaur, G Singh, and P Singh. Study the impact of diabetes camps on adherence to medication and glycaemic control in Uttarakhand. J Clin Diagn Res. 2016;10:OC22-6. DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2016/16053.7271. [PMID:27042497]

[52] PV Dinesh, AG Kulkarni, and NK Gangadhar. Knowledge and self-care practices regarding diabetes among patients with Type 2 diabetes in Rural Sullia, Karnataka: A community-based, cross-sectional study. J Family Med Prim Care. 2016;5:847-52. DOI: 10.4103/2249-4863.201176. [PMID:28349003]

[53] P Debnath, K Natasha, L Ali, T Bhaduri, TK Roy, and S Bera. Ayurpharmacoepidemiology Perspective: Health Literacy (Knowledge and Practice) Among Older Diabetes Patients Visiting Ayurveda Teaching Hospitals in India. J Evid Based Complementary Altern Med. 2017;22:242-50. DOI: 10.1177/2156587216643641. [PMID:27074784]

[54] N Kumar, B Unnikrishnan, R Thapar, P Mithra, V Kulkarni, and R Holla. Distress and its effect on adherence to antidiabetic medications among Type 2 diabetes patients in coastal South India. J Nat Sci Biol Med. 2017;8:216-20. DOI: 10.4103/0976-9668.210008. [PMID:28781491]

[55] AM Samu, PS Amirthalingam, and OS Mohammed. Assessment of patient medication adherence among the type 2 diabetes mellitus population with peripheral diabetic neuropathy in South India. J Taibah Univ Med Sci. 2017;12:164-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.jtumed.2016.12.006. [PMID:31435232]

[56] S Sheeba, S Ak, and V Biju. Knowledge and self-care practices among diabetics. Asian J Pharm Clin Res. 2017;10:234-7. DOI: 10.22159/ajpcr.2017.v10i12.21072

[57] KM Srinath, M Basavegowda, and NS Tharuni. Diabetic self care practices in rural Mysuru, Southern Karnataka, India – A need for Diabetes Self Management Educational (DSME) program. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2017;11:Suppl 1S181-S186. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2016.12.029. [PMID:28089167]

[58] A Britto, S Kumar, A Hazari, R Jadhav, AS Babu, and V Bhat. Physical activity measurement using an accelerometer among indians with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A cross-sectional study. Crit Rev Phys Rehabil Med. 2018;30:141-50. DOI: 10.1615/CritRevPhysRehabilMed.2018025969

[59] S Pati, E Lobo, S Pati, S Desaraju, and P Mahapatra. Type 2 diabetes and physical activity: Barriers and enablers to diabetes control in Eastern India. Indian J Endocrinol Metab. 2018;22:S43

[60] S Ravi, S Kumar, and V Gopichandran. Do supportive family behaviors promote diabetes self-management in resource limited urban settings? A cross sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2018;18:826 DOI: 10.1186/s12889-018-5766-1. [PMID:29973181]

[61] M Venkatesan, AR Dongre, and K Ganapathy. A Community-Based Study on Diabetes Medication Nonadherence and its Risk Factors in Rural Tamil Nadu. Indian J Community Med. 2018;43:72-6. [PMID:29899603]

[62] A Jasmine and RH Iyer. Knowledge, attitude, practice and barriers for self-care among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in rural tamil nadu. Indian J Public Health Res Dev. 2019;10:419-24. DOI: 10.5958/0976-5506.2019.02463.X

[63] AS Acharya, E Gupta, A Prakash, and N Singhal. Self-reported Adherence to Medication among Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus attending a Tertiary Care Hospital of Delhi. J Assoc Physicians India. 2019;67:26-9. [PMID:31299834]

[64] MS Aravind, TM Joy, and PS Rakesh. Self care practices among people with type II diabetes mellitus in an urban area of Ernakulam, Kerala. Indian J Public Health Res Dev. 2019;10:1-5. DOI: 10.5958/0976-5506.2019.01843.6

[65] G Banerjee, R Kumar, D Basu, SN Chakraborty, K Hansda, and BD Munshi. Physical activity pattern and its impact on glycemic control among patients with type-2 diabetes mellitus attending an integrated diabetes and gestational diabetes clinic of eastern India. Natl J Physiol Pharm Pharmacol. 2019;10:177-83. DOI: 10.5455/njppp.2020.10.1238622122019

[66] JP Raj, DR Selvaraj, and JC Thomas. Dietary Calcium Intake and Physical Activity Levels among Urban South Indian Type 2 Diabetic Patients. Topics Clin Nutr. 2019;34:39-46. DOI: 10.1097/TIN.0000000000000166

[67] T Sirari, B Patro, P Datta, and PVM Lakshmi. Levels of compliance of self-care practices of diabetes mellitus type 2 patients: a study from a tertiary care hospital of North India. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2019;39:193-200. DOI: 10.1007/s13410-018-0623-4

[68] A Bashir, K Pandey, M Azharuddin, A Kumari, I Rashid, and NA Siddiqui. Association between diet quality scores, adiposity, glycemic status and nutritional biomarkers among Indian population with type 2 diabetes mellitus: A cross-sectional study. Clin Epidemiol Glob Health. 2020;8:7 DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2019.04.007

[69] K Chandrika, B Das, S Syed, and S Challa. Diabetes self-care activities: A community-based survey in an urban slum in Hyderabad, India. Indian J Community Med. 2020;45:307-10. DOI: 10.4103/ijcm.IJCM_236_19. [PMID:33354008]

[70] P Kowsalya. Karthika, Krishna Kumar R, Joyce S, Thivya N. A study to assess the compliance to medication among type 2 diabetic patients at selected rural community in kanchipuram district, tamil nadu. Med-Leg Update. 2020;20:128-31.

[71] JT Palathingal, R Tom, V Naresh Babu, SE Chacko, AS Kumar, and M Saravanan. Assessment of medication adherence in rural population with type 2 diabetes: Study in a tertiary care hospital In South India. Int J Biomed Sci. 2020;16:21-9.

[72] L Patnaik, AK Muduli, AK Sahoo, S Beura, and SK Panigrahi. Dietary Habits of Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus-An Exploratory Study in a Tertiary Care Hospital of Eastern India. J Clin Diagn Res. 2020;14:4 DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2020/37234.13511

[73] A Shrivastva, S Phadnis, NK Rao, and M Gore. A study on knowledge and self-care practices about Diabetes Mellitus among patients with type 2 Diabetes Mellitus attending selected tertiary healthcare facilities in coastal Karnataka. Clin Epidemiol Glob Health. 2020;8:689-92. DOI: 10.1016/j.cegh.2020.01.003

[74] S Achappa. Adherence to Medication among the Patients with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus in a Rural Area: A Community based Study. Indian J Public Health Res Dev. 2020;11

[75] RC Karthik, A Radhakrishnan, A Vikram, B Arumugam, and S Jagadeesh. Self-care practices among type II diabetics in rural area of Kancheepuram district, Tamil Nadu. J Family Med Prim Care. 2020;9:2912-8. DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_356_20. [PMID:32984148]

[76] M Kumar, B Paul, A Dasgupta, L Bandyopadhyay, S Roy, and S Bandyopadhyay. Diabetic peripheral neuropathy and its association with diabetes self-care: A clinic-based study in an urban health centre, kolkata. J Clin Diagn Res. 2021;15:LC13-6. DOI: 10.7860/JCDR/2021/45807.14557

[77] S Rana, GL Kumar, N Seema, and D Nandinee. Profile of diabetes patients’ chronic illness care in India and its role in their adherence. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2021;15:303-8. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2021.01.001. [PMID:33484987]

[78] J Burman, A Bhattacharya, A Chattopdhyay, I Dey, S Sembiah, and R Negi. Self-care practice and its predictors amongst Type-2 Diabetes Mellitus patients in the outpatient department of a tertiary hospital of Kolkata, Eastern India – A cross-sectional study. J Family Med Prim Care. 2021;10:1377-82. DOI: 10.4103/jfmpc.jfmpc_2070_20. [PMID:34041182]

[79] Durai V, Samya V, Akila G, Shriraam V, Jasmine A, Muthuthandavan A, et al. Self-care practices and factors influencing self-care among type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in a rural health center in South India. J Edu Health Promotion. 2021;10.

[80] R Mishra, SK Sharma, R Verma, P Kangra, P Dahiya, and P Kumari. Medication adherence and quality of life among type-2 diabetes mellitus patients in India. World J Diabetes. 2021;12:1740-9. DOI: 10.4239/wjd.v12.i10.1740. [PMID:34754375]

[81] R Singh, P Kumari, A Prashar, O Sardana, and V Singh. Assessment of medication adherence among type-2 diabetes mellitus in a tertiary care hospital of North India. Environ Sci Pollut Res Int. 2022;29:24951-5. DOI: 10.1007/s11356-021-17434-1. [PMID:34826085]

[82] R Aravindakshan, SB Abraham, and R Aiyappan. Medication Adherence to Oral Hypoglycemic Drugs among Individuals with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus – A Community Study. Indian J Community Med. 2021;46:503-7. [PMID:34759497]

[83] SI Zuberi, EU Syed, and JA Bhatti. Association of depression with treatment outcomes in Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus: a cross-sectional study from Karachi, Pakistan. BMC Psychiatry. 2011;11:27 DOI: 10.1186/1471-244X-11-27. [PMID:21324127]

[84] MU Ahmed, HM Seriwala, SH Danish, AM Khan, M Hussain, and M Husain. Knowledge, Attitude, and Self Care Practices Amongsts Patients WithType 2 Diabetes in Pakistan. Glob J Health Sci. 2015;8:1-8. DOI: 10.5539/gjhs.v8n7p1. [PMID:26925888]

[85] RA Javaid, MS Akhtar, K Ali, MM Khan, S Bucha, and SH Kamboyo. Physical activity, dietary practices and body mass indices relationship in type II diabetics patients. Pak J Med Health Sci. 2016;10:92-7.

[86] A Bukhsh, SWH Lee, P Pusparajah, A Schmitt, and TM Khan. Psychometric properties of the Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (DSMQ)[in Urdu] Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2017;15:200 DOI: 10.1186/s12955-017-0776-8. [PMID:29025432]

[87] Q Iqbal, S Bashir, J Iqbal, S Iftikhar, and B Godman. Assessment of medication adherence among type 2 diabetic patients in Quetta city, Pakistan. Postgrad Med. 2017;129:637-43. DOI: 10.1080/00325481.2017.1328251. [PMID:28480795]

[88] SR Nazirl, MA Hassali, F Saleem, S Bashir, and H Aljadhey. Does adherence to the therapeutic regimen associate with health related quality of life: Findings from an observational study of type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in Pakistan. Pak J Pharm Sci. 2017;30:2159-65. [PMID:29175785]

[89] B Rana, A Bukhsh, TM Khan, A Sarwar, MO Omer, and SQ Jamshed. Evaluation of therapeutic effectiveness of prescribed medications in patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus: Findings from a tertiary care hospital, Lahore, Pakistan. J Pharm Bioallied Sci. 2017;9:121-5. [PMID:28717335]

[90] A Bukhsh, TM Khan, MS Nawaz, HS Ahmed, KG Chan, and LH Lee. Association of diabetes-related self-care activities with glycemic control of patients with type 2 diabetes in Pakistan. Patient Prefer Adherence. 2018;12:2377-85. DOI: 10.2147/PPA.S177314. [PMID:30519003]

[91] MU Farooq, F Mushtaq, Z Naeem, S Iqbal, S Naseem, and O Ishtiaq. Dietary habits and practices of type-2 diabetic patients in a tertiary care centre of Islamabad, Pakistan. J Pak Med Assoc. 2018;68:825-30. [PMID:29885196]

[92] S Zafar, A Rashid, M Aleem, A Bashir, R Tariq, and E Akram. Knowledge and practices of foot care in type diabetic patients visiting OPD of a tertiary care hospital. Pak J Med Health Sci. 2018;12:1143-6.

[93] N Hussain, ASA Said, and Z Khan. Influence of Health Literacy on Medication Adherence Among Elderly Females With Type 2 Diabetes in Pakistan. Int Q Community Health Educ. 2020;41:35-44. DOI: 10.1177/0272684X19896724. [PMID:31886737]

[94] K Siddique, R Malik, A Usman, K Ishfaq, MS Nadeem, and M Qadir. Self-care behaviors and glycemic control among older Type 2 diabetes mellitus patients in low-income families in Southern Punjab, Pakistan. J Hum Behav Soc Environ. 2022;1:67-76.

[95] KA Sayeed, A Qayyum, F Jamshed, U Gill, SM Usama, and K Asghar. Impact of Diabetes-related Self-management on Glycemic Control in Type II Diabetes Mellitus. Cureus. 2020;12:e7845-e. DOI: 10.7759/cureus.7845. [PMID:32483496]

[96] R Ishaq, S Haider, F Saleem, S Bashir, AM Tareen, and MA Mengal. Diabetes-related Knowledge, Medication Adherence, and Health-related Quality of Life: A Correlation Analysis. Altern Ther Health Med. 2021;27:S146-53. [PMID:32663176]

[97] SS Shrestha, R Shakya, BM Karmacharya, and P Thapa. Medication adherence to oral hypoglycemic agents among type II diabetic patients and their clinical outcomes with special reference to fasting blood glucose and glycosylated hemoglobin levels. Kathmandu Univ Med J (KUMJ). 2013;11:226-32. . KUMJDOI: 10.3126/kumj.v11i3.12510. [PMID:24442171]

[98] J Parajuli, F Saleh, N Thapa, and L Ali. Factors associated with nonadherence to diet and physical activity among Nepalese type 2 diabetes patients; a cross sectional study. BMC Res Notes. 2014;7:758 DOI: 10.1186/1756-0500-7-758. [PMID:25344089]

[99] S Sharma and SD Bhadari. Knowledge and Practice regarding Self-Care among the patients with type II Diabetes of Kapan, Kathmandu. Journal of Advanced Academic Research. 2014;1:85-91. DOI: 10.3126/jaar.v1i2.16592

[100] S Ghimire. Barriers to Diet and Exercise among Nepalese Type 2 Diabetic Patients. Int Sch Res Notices. 2017;2017:1273084. DOI: 10.1155/2017/1273084. [PMID:29349287]

[101] JTM Shrestha, H Shrestha, M Prajapati, A Karkee, and A Maharjan. Adverse effects of oral hypoglycemic agents and adherence to them among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus in Nepal. Journal of Lumbini Medical College. 2017;5:34-40. DOI: 10.22502/jlmc.v5i1.126

[102] GD Ghimire and WA Devi. Self-Management Behaviors among patients with Type 2 Diabetes at Manipal Teaching Hospital, Nepal. Int J Nurs Educ. 2018;10:49-54. DOI: 10.5958/0974-9357.2018.00039.9

[103] S Kadariya and AR Aro. Barriers and facilitators to physical activity among urban residents with diabetes in Nepal. PLoS One. 2018;13:e0199329. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0199329. [PMID:29953475]

[104] RP Sapkota, T Upadhyaya, G Gurung, M Parker, R Raman, and S Pardhan. Need to improve awareness and treatment compliance in high-risk patients for diabetic complications in Nepal. BMJ Open Diabetes Res Care. 2018;6:e000525. DOI: 10.1136/bmjdrc-2018-000525. [PMID:29755757]

[105] D Thapa. Self-care activities among patients with diabetes attending a tertiary care hospital in Biratnagar, Nepal. Journal of Nobel Medical College. 2018;7:11-7. DOI: 10.3126/jonmc.v7i1.20841

[106] S Pokhrel, S Shrestha, A Timilsina, M Sapkota, MP Bhatt, and BD Pardhe. Self-Care Adherence And Barriers To Good Glycaemic Control In Nepalese Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Patients: A Hospital-Based Cross-Sectional Study. J Multidiscip Healthc. 2019;12:817-26. DOI: 10.2147/JMDH.S216842. [PMID:31632050]

[107] B Bhattarai, B Bista, S Shrestha, B Budhathoki, and B Dhamala. Contributing Factors of Non-Adherence to Treatment among the Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus. Journal of Manmohan Memorial Institute of Health Sciences. 2019;5:68-78. DOI: 10.3126/jmmihs.v5i1.24075

[108] K Sharma, G Dhungana, S Adhikari, A Bista Pandey, and M Sharma. Depression and Anxiety among Patients with Type II Diabetes Mellitus in Chitwan Medical College Teaching Hospital, Nepal. Nurs Res Pract. 2021;2021:8846915. DOI: 10.1155/2021/8846915. [PMID:33520315]

[109] M Shrestha, A Ng, R Paudel, and R Gray. Association between subthreshold depression and self-care behaviours in adults with type 2 diabetes: A cross-sectional study. J Clin Nurs. 2021;30:2462-8. DOI: 10.1111/jocn.15741. [PMID:33829600]

[110] S Kandel, S Assanangkornchai, and W Wichaidit. Association between family behaviors and self-care activities among type-II diabetes mellitus patients at a teaching hospital in Kathmandu, Nepal. J Educ Health Promot. 2022;11:25 [PMID:35281405]

[111] F Saleh, SJ Mumu, F Ara, L Ali, S Hossain, and KR Ahmed. Knowledge, attitude and practice of type 2 diabetic patients regarding obesity: Study in a tertiary care hospital in Bangladesh. J Public Health Afr. 2012;3:e8. DOI: 10.4081/jphia.2012.e8. [PMID:28299081]

[112] SJ Mumu, F Saleh, F Ara, F Afnan, and L Ali. Non-adherence to life-style modification and its factors among type 2 diabetic patients. Indian J Public Health. 2014;58:40-4. DOI: 10.4103/0019-557X.128165. [PMID:24748356]

[113] F Saleh, SJ Mumu, F Ara, MA Hafez, and L Ali. Non-adherence to self-care practices & medication and health related quality of life among patients with type 2 diabetes: a cross-sectional study. BMC Public Health. 2014;14:431 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-14-431. [PMID:24885315]

[114] KR Ahmed, F Jebunessa, S Hossain, and HA Chowdhury. Ocular knowledge and practice among type 2 diabetic patients in a tertiary care hospital in Bangladesh. BMC Ophthalmol. 2017;17:171 DOI: 10.1186/s12886-017-0560-x. [PMID:28927398]

[115] HA Chowdhury, K Fatema, S Hossain, K Natasha, T Khan, and J Akter. Knowledge and self-care practice regarding diabetes among type 2diabetics: experience from a non-profit hospital chain in Bangladesh. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2018;38:478-85. DOI: 10.1007/s13410-017-0597-7

[116] MS Bukht, KR Ahmed, S Hossain, P Masud, S Sultana, and R Khanam. Association between physical activity and diabetic complications among Bangladeshi type 2 diabetic patients. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2019;13:806-9. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2018.11.069. [PMID:30641812]

[117] MA Majid, MA Bashet, MRF Siddique, and ME Rahman. Association between dietary habit and diabetic risk profiles among diagnosed Type-2 diabetic patients in a selected area of Bangladesh. Diabetes Metab Syndr. 2019;13:1633-7. DOI: 10.1016/j.dsx.2019.03.030. [PMID:31336533]

[118] SMS Islam, R Uddin, SB Zaman, T Biswas, T Tansi, and Z Chegini. Healthcare seeking behavior and glycemic control in patients with type 2 diabetes attending a tertiary hospital. Int J Diabetes Dev Ctries. 2020;41:280-7.

[119] SM Hasan, M Rahman, K Nakamura, Y Tashiro, A Miyashita, and K Seino. Relationship between diabetes self-care practices and control of periodontal disease among type2 diabetes patients in Bangladesh. PLoS One. 2021;16:e0249011. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0249011. [PMID:33822810]

[120] A Medagama and M Galgomuwa. Comorbidities and Ethnocultural Factors Limit the Physical Activity of Rural Sri Lankan Patients with Diabetes Mellitus. J Diabetes Res. 2018;2018:4319604. DOI: 10.1155/2018/4319604. [PMID:29693020]

[121] D Rathish, R Hemachandra, T Premadasa, S Ramanayake, C Rasangika, and R Roshiban. Comparison of medication adherence between type 2 diabetes mellitus patients who pay for their medications and those who receive it free: a rural Asian experience. J Health Popul Nutr. 2019;38:4 DOI: 10.1186/s41043-019-0161-9. [PMID:30678724]

[122] DJ Toobert, SE Hampson, and RE Glasgow. The summary of diabetes self-care activities measure: results from 7 studies and a revised scale. Diabetes Care. 2000;23:943-50. DOI: 10.2337/diacare.23.7.943. [PMID:10895844]

[123] A Schmitt, A Gahr, N Hermanns, B Kulzer, J Huber, and T Haak. The Diabetes Self-Management Questionnaire (DSMQ): development and evaluation of an instrument to assess diabetes self-care activities associated with glycaemic control. Health Qual Life Outcomes. 2013;11:138 DOI: 10.1186/1477-7525-11-138. [PMID:23937988]

[124] DE Morisky, A Ang, M Krousel-Wood, and HJ Ward. Predictive validity of a medication adherence measure in an outpatient setting. J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2008;10:348-54. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-7176.2008.07572.x. [PMID:18453793]

[125] DE Morisky, LW Green, and DM Levine. Concurrent and predictive validity of a self-reported measure of medication adherence. Med Care. 1986;24:67-74. DOI: 10.1097/00005650-198601000-00007. [PMID:3945130]

[126] World Health Organization. Global physical activity questionnaire (GPAQ) analysis guide. Geneva: World Health Organization. 2012:1-22.

[127] CL Craig, AL Marshall, M Sjöström, AE Bauman, ML Booth, and BE Ainsworth. International physical activity questionnaire: 12-country reliability and validity. Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2003;35:1381-95. DOI: 10.1249/01.MSS.0000078924.61453.FB. [PMID:12900694]

[128] C van Weel, R Kassai, W Qidwai, R Kumar, K Bala, and P Prasad Gupta. Primary healthcare policy implementation in South Asia. BMJ Glob Health. 2016;1:e000057. DOI: 10.1136/bmjgh-2016-000057. [PMID:28588938]

[129] S Zaidi, P Saligram, S Ahmed, E Sonderp, and K Sheikh. Expanding access to healthcare in South Asia. BMJ. 2017;357:j1645 DOI: 10.1136/bmj.j1645. [PMID:28400377]

[130] DM Thiel, F Al Sayah, JK Vallance, ST Johnson, and JA Johnson. Association between Physical Activity and Health-Related Quality of Life in Adults with Type 2 Diabetes. Can J Diabetes. 2017;41:58-63. DOI: 10.1016/j.jcjd.2016.07.004. [PMID:27692960]

[131] R Guthold, GA Stevens, LM Riley, and FC Bull. Worldwide trends in insufficient physical activity from 2001 to 2016: a pooled analysis of 358 population-based surveys with 1.9 million participants. Lancet Glob Health. 2018;6:e1077-86. DOI: 10.1016/S2214-109X(18)30357-7. [PMID:30193830]

[132] TS Advika, J Idiculla, and SJ Kumari. Exercise in patients with Type 2 diabetes: Facilitators and barriers – A qualitative study. J Family Med Prim Care. 2017;6:288-92. DOI: 10.4103/2249-4863.219998. [PMID:29302534]

[133] M Boniol, M Dragomir, P Autier, and P Boyle. Physical activity and change in fasting glucose and HbA1c: a quantitative meta-analysis of randomized trials. Acta Diabetol. 2017;54:983-91. DOI: 10.1007/s00592-017-1037-3. [PMID:28840356]

[134] D Umpierre, PA Ribeiro, CK Kramer, CB Leitão, AT Zucatti, and MJ Azevedo. Physical activity advice only or structured exercise training and association with HbA1c levels in type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. JAMA. 2011;305:1790-9. DOI: 10.1001/jama.2011.576. [PMID:21540423]

[135] T Sohal, P Sohal, KM King-Shier, and NA Khan. Barriers and Facilitators for Type-2 Diabetes Management in South Asians: A Systematic Review. PLoS One. 2015;10:e0136202. DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0136202. [PMID:26383535]

[136] L Gupta, B Arora, D Khandelwal, PR Lal, S Kalra, and S Bhattacharya. Dietary Practices During Common Religious Fasts in People with Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus Among Different Religions in North India—A Questionnaire-based Study. US Endocrinol. 2020;16:36 DOI: 10.17925/USE.2020.16.1.36

[137] UN Yadav, J Lloyd, H Hosseinzadeh, KP Baral, S Dahal, and N Bhatta. Facilitators and barriers to the self-management of COPD: a qualitative study from rural Nepal. BMJ Open. 2020;10:e035700. DOI: 10.1136/bmjopen-2019-035700. [PMID:32156769]

[138] K Capoccia, PS Odegard, and N Letassy. Medication Adherence With Diabetes Medication: A Systematic Review of the Literature. Diabetes Educ. 2016;42:34-71. DOI: 10.1177/0145721715619038. [PMID:26637240]

[139] DT Juarez, C Tan, J Davis, and M Mau. Factors Affecting Sustained Medication Adherence and Its Impact on Health Care Utilization in Patients with Diabetes. J Pharm Health Serv Res. 2013;4:89-94. DOI: 10.1111/jphs.12016. [PMID:23717343]

[140] NT Wabe, MT Angamo, and S Hussein. Medication adherence in diabetes mellitus and self management practices among type-2 diabetics in Ethiopia. N Am J Med Sci. 2011;3:418-23. DOI: 10.4297/najms.2011.3418. [PMID:22362451]

[141] VS Malik, WC Willett, and FB Hu. Global obesity: trends, risk factors and policy implications. Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2013;9:13-27. DOI: 10.1038/nrendo.2012.199. [PMID:23165161]

[142] A Misra, L Khurana, S Isharwal, and S Bhardwaj. South Asian diets and insulin resistance. Br J Nutr. 2009;101:465-73. DOI: 10.1017/S0007114508073649. [PMID:18842159]

[143] R Jayawardena, P Ranasinghe, NM Byrne, MJ Soares, P Katulanda, and AP Hills. Prevalence and trends of the diabetes epidemic in South Asia: a systematic review and meta-analysis. BMC Public Health. 2012;12:380 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2458-12-380. [PMID:22630043]

[144] D Papamichou, DB Panagiotakos, and C Itsiopoulos. Dietary patterns and management of type 2 diabetes: A systematic review of randomised clinical trials. Nutr Metab Cardiovasc Dis. 2019;29:531-43. DOI: 10.1016/j.numecd.2019.02.004. [PMID:30952576]

[145] O Ajala, P English, and J Pinkney. Systematic review and meta-analysis of different dietary approaches to the management of type 2 diabetes. Am J Clin Nutr. 2013;97:505-16. DOI: 10.3945/ajcn.112.042457. [PMID:23364002]

[146] S Allemann, C Houriet, P Diem, and C Stettler. Self-monitoring of blood glucose in non-insulin treated patients with type 2 diabetes: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Curr Med Res Opin. 2009;25:2903-13. DOI: 10.1185/03007990903364665. [PMID:19827909]

[147] UN Yadav, SK Mistry, S Ghimire, CH Schneider, LB Rawal, and SP Acharya. Recognizing the roles of primary health care in addressing non-communicable diseases in low- and middle-income countries: Lesson from COVID-19, implications for the future. J Glob Health. 2021;11:03120 DOI: 10.7189/jogh.11.03120. [PMID:34804511]

[148] SD Garduño-Diaz and S Khokhar. Prevalence, risk factors and complications associated with type 2 diabetes in migrant South Asians. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2012;28:6-24. DOI: 10.1002/dmrr.1219. [PMID:21591242]

[149] S Begum, M Venkatesan, and K Ganapathy. Foot care practices, its barriers and risk for peripheral neuropathy among diabetic patients attending medical college in rural Puducherry. Int J Community Med Public Health. 2019;6:1203-7.

[150] K van Acker, P Léger, A Hartemann, A Chawla, and MK Siddiqui. Burden of diabetic foot disorders, guidelines for management and disparities in implementation in Europe: a systematic literature review. Diabetes Metab Res Rev. 2014;30:635-45. DOI: 10.1002/dmrr.2523. [PMID:24470359]

[151] A Booth, M Clarke, G Dooley, D Ghersi, D Moher, and M Petticrew. The nuts and bolts of PROSPERO: an international prospective register of systematic reviews. Syst Rev. 2012;1:2 DOI: 10.1186/2046-4053-1-2. [PMID:22587842]

Correspondence to:
Grish Paudel
School of Health Medical and Applied Sciences
Central Queensland University
Sydney
Australia
[email protected]